Many technologies exist to help people with disabilities use computers to overcome their handicaps.  With the advent and prevalence of the World Wide Web, new sources of information are now more available to a traditionally underserved population.  It is important for the designers of virtual museums to keep in mind that the virtual museum web site may provide the best or only access to the museum’s collection for a person with disabilities.  In order to better serve computer users with different abilities, web designers should be informed about the adaptive technologies the differently abled use to access the Internet, and designers should also consider the aspects of web design that will make the virtual museum more compatible with these technologies.
        This pathfinder encompasses the dual purposes of educating web designers about assistive technology and introducing resources to guide designers in adapting virtual museums for the differently abled.  I have written this pathfinder for students researching virtual museums in the Information Resources in the Humanities class at the University of Texas Graduate School for Library and Information Science.  I have chosen to include only resources that students can easily access on the UT campus and on the Internet through no-fee services.  Another criterion for selection is that each resource include a significant portion about how people with disabilities access the Internet or guidelines for adapting web sites for the differently abled.

What technologies are available to assist people with disabilities in using computers?

        In beginning research on the topic of adapting virtual museums, I first looked at UTNetCat for resources about assistive technology for the disabled.  The Library of Congress Subject Heading for this field is “Computers and the Handicapped.”  Many of the sources I reviewed were outdated or provided a broad overview of computer adaptations without specifically addressing web access.  For the most up-to-date print resources on assistive technology, examine conference proceedings cataloged under the subject heading “Computers and the Handicapped--Congresses.”  Indexes and databases such as ERIC, available under “Indexes, Abstracts, and Full Text” on UT Library Online <http://www.lib.utexas.edu/>, provide resources on adaptive technology, but the few articles specifically on web design for the disabled are difficult to access.

How can I design and evaluate an accessible web site?

        While many computer add-ons and software programs allow the differently abled to access virtually any information on the Internet, there are steps a designer can take to increase accessibility and compatibility.  After learning about the different technologies available for a variety of disabilities, I searched for information about web design for accessibility.  Design books are cataloged under the subject heading “Web sites--Design,” but few of the books I examined contained a significant amount of information about universal design.  For accessibility guidelines, the most recent and useful sources can be found on the Internet by combining search terms such as “universal design,” “web design,” “accessibility,” and “disabled.”  The most authoritative web pages about accessible web site design include extensive links to organizations, guidelines, and evaluation tools for web designers.

        An online version of “Pathfinder: Adapting Virtual Museums for the Differently Abled” is available from http://www.gslis.utexas.edu/~vmuseum/jarrett.html.
 
 

The citations in this bibliography follow the style of: Turabian, Kate L.  A Manual for Writers of
        Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations.  6th ed.  Revised by John Grossman and Alice
        Bennett.  Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.

Monographs

1. Cunningham, Carmela, and Norman Coombs.  Information Access and Adaptive Technology. Series on Higher
           Education.  Phoenix: American Council on Education and Oryx Press, 1997.  HV 1569.5 C86 1997 PCL Stacks

        Written entirely about how computers allow the differently abled to access information, this book covers topics such as the Americans with Disabilities Act, adaptive computing programs, and creating accessible workstations and libraries.  In the chapter “The Information Highway and the Information Hungry,” the authors discuss the barriers to Internet access that people with disabilities encounter and offer guidelines and resources for web page creators.  This chapter serves as an excellent introduction to web access problems and solutions.  The book includes a subject index and bibliography of additional resources.

2. Lazzaro, Joseph J.  Adaptive Technologies for the Learning & Work Environments.  Chicago: American Library
           Association, 1993.  HV 1569.5 L38 1993 PCL Stacks

         Offering an overview of adaptive technologies for different disabilities, Lazzaro’s book provides the reader with a basic understanding of the hardware and software that enable people with disabilities to use computers.  In the chapter “Applications for Adaptive Technology” the author discusses the value of Internet access to the differently abled.  This book is useful for readers who need background information about adaptive technology.  Lazzaro includes a comprehensive index and appendices of assistive technology organizations and conferences.

Conference Proceedings

3. ACM Conference on Assistive Technologies.  Assets ’96: The Second Annual ACM Conference on Assistive
        Technologies: April 11-12, 1996, Waterfront Centre Hotel, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.  New York:
        Association for Computing Machinery, 1996.  HV 1569.5 A24 1996 PCL Stacks

         ACM Conferences “provide a forum where researchers and developers from academia and industry can meet to exchange ideas and report on leading edge developments relating to computer based systems to help people with disabilities” (Jaffe 1996, ii).  The focus of the second conference is on universal design in education.  The proceedings include abstracts and articles from the presentations on topics such as “User Interface” and “World Wide Web Issues.”  These proceedings provide a valuable collection of scholarly writings on the latest developments in adapting hardware, software, and the Internet for use by persons with disabilities.  The proceedings include a table of contents (articles are grouped according to conference session topic), author index, and keyword index.

4. ACM Conference on Assistive Technologies.  Assets ’98: The Third International ACM Conference on Assistive
        Technologies: April 15-17, 1998, Marina del Rey Hotel, Marina del Rey, California.  New York: Association for
        Computing Machinery, 1998.  HV 1569.5 A24 1998 PCL Stacks

        These proceedings include brief technical papers on a variety of technological developments arranged by date and time of the presentation.  Readers can more easily access information about specific technologies or disabilities through the keyword index.  Virtual museum designers may find articles such as “Making VRML Accessible for People with Disabilities” and “Haptic Virtual Reality for Blind Computer Users” of interest.

5. Proceedings of the Johns Hopkins National Association to Assist Persons with Disabilities, February 1-5, 1992,
       Laurel, Maryland.  Los Alamitos, California: IEEE Computer Society Press, 1992.  HV 1553 J64 1992 PCL Stacks

        This collection of articles about developments in adaptive technology that enable people with different abilities to more easily use computers are grouped by the type of disability: “hearing, speech, and language”; “learning disabilities and mental retardation”; “neuromuscular and neurological”; “vision”; and “non-specified.”  The proceedings are useful to designers of virtual museums because they include information on new technologies, some inexpensive, that make graphic interfaces more accessible to the disabled.  The reader can access information through the arrangement by disability or the author index.

6. Zagler, Wolfgang L., Geoffrey Busby, and Roland R. Wagner, eds. Computers for Handicapped Persons: 4th
        International Conference, ICCHP ’94, Vienna, Austria, September 14-16, 1994, Proceedings.  Lecture Notes in
        Computer Science.  Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1994.  HV 1569.5 I56 1994 PCL Stacks

        The International Conference on Computers for Handicapped Persons (ICCHP) focuses on how computers help people overcome their handicaps.  These proceedings include papers on the developments in graphic interfaces, tactile output, and screen readers that enable people to more easily access information, both on and off the Internet.  The proceedings follow a subject arrangement; the author index allows another point of access.  An appendix includes ICCHP ’94 Pre-Conference Seminars.

Government Documents

7. National Council on Disability.  Access to Mulitmedia Technology by People with Sensory Disabilities.  Print and online.
        Washington, D.C.: National Council on Disability and Government Printing Office, 1998.  Available from
        http://www.ncd.gov/newsroom/publications/sensory.html; Internet; accessed 28 October 2000.  DOCS Y3.D63/3:2
        M91 Public Affairs Library—U.S. Documents

        NCD’s report surveys the current accessibility of multimedia technology (including virtual reality and Internet) to people with visual or hearing impairments.  It enumerates the barriers and offers solutions to webmasters for adapting their designs for the differently abled.  The report’s appendices include helpful descriptions of initiatives for improving accessibility.  The online version provides easier access to the report through links from the table of contents.

8. National Council on Disability.  Access to the Information Superhighway and Emerging Information Technologies by
        People with Disabilities.  Print and online.  Washington, D.C.: National Council on Disability and Government Printing
        Office, 1996.  Available from http://www.ncd.gov/newsroom/publications/superhwy.html; Internet; accessed on 28
        October 2000.  DOCS Y3.D63/3:2 IN3 Public Affairs Library—U.S. Documents

        In this report, the NCD discusses the problems encountered by people with disabilities trying to access information on the Internet and proposes solutions for current and future technology.  The “General Accessibility Guidelines” section lists specific aspects of web design (such as sound and images) and the alternative features that web sites should offer to make information more accessible to people with specific disabilities.  This report is a valuable tool for the virtual museum designer who wants to identify potential problems with a site and find the solutions that target specific disabilities.  As with the other National Council on Disability report, the online version of Access to the Information Superhighway is easier to use because of the links provided within the document.

9.   U.S. Department of Justice.  Information Technology and People with Disabilities: The Current State of Federal
        Accessibility.  Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 2000.  DOCS J1.2: D 63/4 PCL Stacks

        This government report analyzes the accessibility of federal web sites, software, telecommunications, kiosks, and office equipment.  The chapter evaluating agency web pages gives a detailed explanation of each question used to test web page accessibility.  Virtual museum designers can use the questions, which appear in boxes on each page, to evaluate their own sites and refer to the text for explanations of the access problem and suggested solutions.

Web Resources

10. Accessible Web Authoring Resources and Education Center (AWARE). AWARE Center.  Online.  HTML Writers
        Guild, Inc. 1999.  Available from http://aware.hwg.org/; Internet; accessed on 28 October 2000.

        A part of the HTML Writers Guild, the AWARE Center’s mission is to advance web accessibility through educating designers about standards for universal design and offering online courses in accessible web design.  The “Authoring Resources” section includes “a comprehensive list of important resources for web authors creating accessible web pages” (AWARE 1999).  This site provides a valuable source for designers; be sure to click on the “Best Web Accessibility Sites” and “The Accessible Web Author’s Toolkit” sections for links to guidelines, tutorials, evaluation tools, and accessible browsers.

11. Center for Applied Technology (CAST).  Bobby 3.2.  Online.  Peabody, Massachusetts: CAST, 1999.  Available from
        http://www.cast.org/bobby/; Internet; accessed 28 October 2000.

        Bobby is a free web-based tool that evaluates web sites for accessibility, one page at a time.  A downloadable version is also available at this address to test your entire site.  This tool provides a report pointing out problems with the web page and offering suggestions for improvement.  In addition, Bobby shows how a web page will appear through different browsers.  This web site provides directions for how to use Bobby as well as a list of Bobby-approved sites.

12. Center for IT Accommodation (CITA).  Center for IT Accommodation Office of Governmentwide Policy (GSA).
        Online.  Washington, D.C.: Center for IT Accommodation, 2000.  Available from
        http://www.itpolicy.gsa.gov/cita/index.htm; Internet; accessed on 28 October 2000.

        CITA is an organization that works with the federal government and private organizations to promote accessibility in information technology.  While not specifically designed for web page authors, this site provides links to guidelines for accessible web design and web evaluation tools.  CITA also provides the best links to government web pages dealing with issues of accessibility and adaptive technology.  Use the site map to find a comprehensive list of all the links available on this web site.

13. CPB/WGBH.  National Center for Accessibile Media (NCAM).  Online.  Boston: WGBH Educational Foundation,
        2000.  Available from http://www.wgbh.org/wgbh/pages/ncam/; Internet; accessed 28 October 2000.

        “The CPB/WGBH National Center for Accessible Media (NCAM) is a research and development facility that works to make media accessible to underserved populations such as disabled persons, minority-language users, and people with low literacy skills” (NCAM 2000).   NCAM organizes its site according to project; follow the link to the Web Access Project for information about adapting multimedia web sites.

14. Employment Equity Positive Measures Program Directorate of the Public Service Commission of Canada.  Accessibility.
        Online.  Available from  http://jobs.gc.ca/eepmp-pmpee/access/medadv_e.htm; Internet; accessed 28 October 2000.

        EEPMP’s web site includes links to self-tests for HTML 2.0 and JavaScript for accessibility.  “The test and related links allow designers to assess their site' s rating, conceive a better layout and learn accessible design principles” (EEPMP 2000).  Follow the link to the self-test and select the appropriate test for your web site.  The tests consist of multiple-choice questions and cover everything from text to navigation and video clips.

15. Lubin, Jim.  Accessible Web Page Design.  Online.  Available from
        http://www.eskimo.com/~jlubin/disabled/web-desi.htm; Internet; accessed 28 October 2000.

        Although this page is part of a personal web site, it includes extensive links to authoritative sites on web page design, accessibility guidelines and tests, articles, and graphics.  Lubin groups the links by category but does not annotate the list.  This site provides a great starting place for someone investigating how to make any type of web page more accessible to people with differing abilities.

16. National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research. Accessibility Issues: Access to Disability Data—An
        InfoUse Project.  Online.  1999.  Available from http://www.infouse.com/disabilitydata/addaccess.html; Internet;
        accessed 28 October 2000.

        National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research’s Accessibility Issues page provides specific and concise guidelines for designing accessible sites.  The guidelines include tips for making image maps and video more usable for people with disabilities.  Although this site’s guidelines and links are not as extensive as those on other sites, novice web designers will find the recommendations easy to find and understand.  The “Web Accessibility Guidelines” documents are available in both HTML and PDF form.

17. Teaching, Learning, and Technology Group.  Equal Access to Software and Information (EASI).  Online.  Rochester,
        New York: TLT Group, 1999.  Available from http://www.rit.edu/~easi/; Internet; accessed 28 October 2000.

        The EASI web site includes educational resources about adaptive technology, publications, web design, and distance learning.  Follow the “EASI’s Web Access Kit” link for information on universal design and online workshops for non-HTML proficient webmasters as well as links to additional resources.

18. Trace Research and Development Center.  Designing More Usable Web Sites.  Online.  Available from
        http://trace.wisc.edu/world/web/index.html; Internet; accessed 28 October 2000.

        The Trace Center, affiliated with the University of Wisconsin—Madison, researches ways to make “standard information technologies and telecommunications systems more accessible and usable by people with disabilities” (Trace 2000).  This URL refers directly to the section of the web site about accessible web design, which includes a section of links on “Virtual Reality and Multimedia Access.”  The site’s exhaustive list of links appear in categories such as guidelines, access tools, alternative browsers, discussion forums, and organizations.

19. WebABLE.  WebABLE! Home Page.  Online.  Available from http://www.webable.com/; Internet; accessed 28 October
        2000.

        The WebABLE site consists of a directory of resources for both webmasters and computer users with disabilities.  Resources include guidelines, tools, and seminars for web designers as well as the latest adaptive technology information for the differently abled.  Click on the “About the Company” link for a brief overview of accessible web design.

20. WebAIM: Web Accessibility in Mind.  The Web Accessibility “How-To” Site.  Online.  Available from
        http://webaim.org/; Internet; accessed 28 October 2000.

        Administered through a grant, WebAIM is an organization dedicated to increasing access to online educational opportunities, especially for people with disabilities.  The site provides information on improving web site accessibility, testing tools for web sites, tutorials, and technical assistance for web designers.  Patrons can access information on this site through the subject tabs, links within the text, or the SearchAbility database.  A search for “virtual museums” on the database yields 170 hits, including a links to several tutorials for making 3-D images more accessible.

21. World Wide Web Consortium (W3C).  Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI).  Online.  Available from
        http://www.w3.org/WAI/; Internet; accessed 28 October 2000.

        The Web Accessibility Initiative site offers authoritative, technical guidelines for increasing the accessibility of web content, including sound and video.  The “Web Content Accessibility Guidelines,” are considered the most authoritative guidelines available, but readers must be familiar with markup languages.  In addition to the guidelines, W3C offers checklists and evaluation tools to measure the accessibility of a site, and it includes links to online tutorials for web design.

Return to Top
 
 

        Many technologies exist to help people with disabilities use computers to overcome their handicaps.  With the advent and prevalence of the World Wide Web, new sources of information are now more available to a traditionally underserved population.  It is important for the designers of virtual museums to keep in mind that the virtual museum web site may provide the best or only access to the museum’s collection for a person with disabilities.  In order to better serve computer users with different abilities, web designers should be informed about the adaptive technologies the differently abled use to access the Internet, and designers should also consider the aspects of web design that will make the virtual museum more accessible to people with disabilities.
        This pathfinder encompasses the dual purpose of educating web designers about adaptive technology and introducing resources to guide designers in adapting virtual museums for the differently abled.

Where can I find information about how the differently abled use computers?

        To find general information about the technologies used by people with disabilities to access information on the computer, search UTNetCat for the subject heading “Computers and the Handicapped.”

Cunningham, Carmela, and Norman Coombs.  Information Access and Adaptive Technology.  Series on Higher Education.
        Phoenix: American Council on Education and Oryx Press, 1997.  HV 1569.5 C86 1997 PCL Stacks

Lazzaro, Joseph J.  Adaptive Technologies for the Learning and Work Environments.  Chicago: American Library
        Association, 1993.  HV 1569.5 L38 1993 PCL Stacks

Where can I find information about the latest developments in adaptive technology?

        Conference proceedings provide many articles on a variety of technologies now available to computer users with disabilities.  Often, they contain more up-to-date information than books; proceedings are listed under the heading “Computers and the Handicapped--Congresses.”

ACM Conference on Assistive Technologies.  Assets ’96: The Second Annual ACM Conference on Assistive
        Technologies: April 11-12, 1996, Waterfront Centre Hotel, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.  New York:
        Association for Computing Machinery, 1996.  HV 1569.5 A24 1996 PCL Stacks

ACM Conference on Assistive Technologies.  Assets ’98: The Third International ACM Conference on Assistive
        Technologies: April 15-17, 1998, Marina del Rey Hotel, Marina del Rey, California.  New York: Association
        for Computing Machinery, 1998.  HV 1569.5 A24 1998 PCL Stacks

Does the government have any policies or guidelines on making web sites more accessible?

        Government documents appear in UTNetCat under the subject heading “Computers and the Handicapped—Government Policy—United States.”

CITA.  Center for IT Accommodation Office of Governmentwide Policy (GSA).  Online.  Washington, D.C.: Center for
        IT Accommodation, 2000.  Available from http://www.itpolicy.gsa.gov/cita/index.htm; Internet; accessed on 28 October
        2000.

National Council on Disability.  Access to Mulitmedia Technology by People with Sensory Disabilities.  Print and online.
        Washington, D.C.: National Council on Disability and Government Printing Office, 1998.  Available from
        http://www.ncd.gov/newsroom/publications/sensory.html; Internet; accessed 28 October 2000.
        DOCS Y3.D63/3:2 M91 Public Affairs Library—U.S. Documents

National Council on Disability.  Access to the Information Superhighway and Emerging Information Technologies by
        People with Disabilities.  Print and online.  Washington, D.C.: National Council on Disability and Government Printing
        Office, 1996.  Available from http://www.ncd.gov/newsroom/publications/superhwy.html; Internet; accessed on 28
        October 2000.  DOCS Y3.D63/3:2 IN3 Public Affairs Library—U.S. Documents

U.S. Department of Justice.  Information Technology and People with Disabilities: The Current State of Federal
        Accessibility.  Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 2000.  DOCS J1.2: D 63/4 PCL Stacks

How can I design an accessible web site?

        For accessibility guidelines, the best sources can be found on the Internet by combining search terms such as “universal design,” “web design,” “accessibility,” and “disabled.”  The most authoritative web pages about accessible web site design include extensive links to organizations, guidelines, and evaluation tools for web designers.

Accessible Web Authoring Resources and Education Center (AWARE). AWARE Center.  Online.  HTML Writers Guild,
        Inc. 1999.  Available from http://aware.hwg.org/; Internet; accessed on 28 October 2000.

Lubin, Jim.  Accessible Web Page Design.  Online. Available from http://www.eskimo.com/~jlubin/disabled/web-desi.htm;
        Internet; accessed 28 October 2000.

Trace Research and Development Center.  Designing More Usable Web Sites.  Online.  Available from
        http://trace.wisc.edu/world/web/index.html; Internet; accessed 28 October 2000.

WebAIM: Web Accessibility in Mind.  The Web Accessibility “How-To” Site.  Online.  Available from
        http://webaim.org/; Internet; accessed 28 October 2000.

World Wide Web Consortium (W3C).  Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI).  Online.  Available from
        http://www.w3.org/WAI/; Internet; accessed 28 October 2000.

Now that I have designed a web site, how can I test its accessibility?

Center for Applied Technology (CAST).  Bobby 3.2.  Online.  Peabody, Massachusetts: CAST, 1999.
        Available from http://www.cast.org/bobby/; Internet; accessed 28 October 2000.

Employment Equity Positive Measures Program Directorate of the Public Service Commission of Canada.
        Accessibility.  Online.  Available from  http://jobs.gc.ca/eepmp-pmpee/access/medadv_e.htm; Internet; accessed 28
        October 2000.
 

This pathfinder was created by Shannon Jarrett and is available online at http://www.gslis.utexas.edu/~vmuseum/jarrett.html.

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